Dayak people

 ( Ethnic Groups In Indonesia ) 

The Dayak (; older spelling: Dajak), Dyak, Dayuh or Dayaknese, are the Austronesian ethnic groups native of Borneo. It is a loose term for over 200 riverine and hill-dwelling ethnic groups, located principally in the central and southern interior of Borneo, each with its own dialect, customs, laws, territory, and culture, although common distinguishing traits are readily identifiable. The Dayak were animist (Kaharingan and Folk Hindus) in belief; however, since the 19th century there has been mass conversion to Christianity and to Islam.'', housing the remains of a Pesaguan Dayak after Tiwah ceremony which is a part of Kaharingan religion rituals.]]

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Etymology It is commonly assumed that the name originates from the Brunei Malay and Melanau language word for "interior people", without any reference to an exact ethnic group. Particularly, it derives from a related Kenyah languages word for "upstream" (compare with ethnonym Lun Bawang). The term was adopted by Dutch and German authors as an umbrella term for any non-Muslim natives of Borneo. Thus, historically, the difference between Dayak and non-Dayak natives could be understood as a religious distinction. English writers disapproved of the classification made by the Dutch and Germans, with James Brooke preferring to use the term Dayak for only two distinct groups, the Land (Bidayuh) and Sea Dayaks (Iban).

The Dutch classification from the 19th century has since continued in Indonesia as a catch-all term for indigenous, often non-Muslim tribes on the island until today. The term gained traction in the early 1900s among rising middle class and intellectual figures (such as Hausman Baboe) from those tribes and being used as a unifying term for Dayaks in Kalimantan. In Malaysia, the term Dayak generally reserves as an almost exclusively reference to the natives of Sarawak, namely Iban people (previously referred as Sea Dayaks) and Bidayuh (known as Land Dayak in the past). However, some modern interpretations of the term also include the Orang Ulu groups in Sarawak.

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Ethnicity and languages Dayaks do not speak just one language.

J. B. Avé (1972). 9780875364032, Human Relations Area Files Press. ISBN 9780875364032

Their indigenous languages belong to different subgroups of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, such as Land Dayak, Malayic, Sabahan (although the inclusion of Sabahan groups into Dayaks is not common in Malaysia), and Barito languages languages.

K. Alexander Adelaar (1995). 9781920942854, Department of Anthropology, The Australian National University. . ISBN 9781920942854

See the language list at Nowadays most Dayaks are bilingual, in addition to their native language, are well-versed in Indonesian and Malay language, depending on their country of origin. Many of Borneo's languages are endemic (which means they are spoken nowhere else). This cultural and linguistic diversity parallels the high biodiversity and related traditional knowledge of Borneo.

It is estimated that around 170 languages and dialects are spoken on the island and some by just a few hundred people, thus posing a serious risk to the future of those languages and related heritage.

In 1954, Tjilik Riwut classified the various Dayak groups into 18 tribes throughout the island of Borneo, with 403 sub-tribes according to their respective native languages, customs, and cultures. However, he did not specify the name of the sub-tribes in his publication:

I. Ngaju	Ngaju people Ma'anyan Lawangan people Dusun	53 8 21 8 Central-Southern Borneo
II. Apukayan	Kenyah people Kayan Bahau people	24 10 26 Northeastern Borneo
III. Iban/Sea Dayaks	Iban people	11 Northwestern inland and coastal Borneo
IV. Klemantan people/Land Dayaks	Bidayuh Ketungau	47 40 Northwestern outback Borneo
V. Punan	Basap language Punan Bah Ot	20 24 5 Central-East Borneo
VI. Murut	Idaan/Dusun people Murut people Tidung people	6 10 28 Northern Borneo
VII. Ot Danum	Ot Danum	61 Central-Southern Borneo

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Religion

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Kaharingan In Indonesia, the Dayak indigenous religion has been given the name Kaharingan and may be said to be a form of animism. In 1945, during the Japanese occupation, the Japanese referred to Kaharingan as the religion of the Dayak people. During the New Order in the Suharto regime in 1980, the Kaharingan is registered as a form of Hinduism in Indonesia, as the Indonesian state prior to 2017 only recognised 6 forms of religion i.e. Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism respectively. The integration of Kaharingan with Hinduism is not due to the similarities in the theological system, but because Kaharingan is the oldest belief in Kalimantan. Unlike the development in Indonesian Kalimantan, Kaharingan is not used as a religious designation in Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore, thus the traditional Dayak belief system is categorized as a form of folk animism or paganism outside of the Indonesian border. After wider recognition of indigenous beliefs in Indonesia in 2017, Kaharingan has been sometimes included under the umbrella term Aliran Kepercayaan, though some Kaharingan activists still demands further recognition as a separate religion outside of the umbrella term.

The practice of Kaharingan differs from group to group, but shamans, specialists in ecstatic flight to other spheres, are central to Dayak religion and serve to bring together the various realms of Heaven (Upper-world) and earth, and even Under-world, for example healing the sick by retrieving their souls which are journeying on their way to the Upper-world land of the dead, accompanying and protecting the soul of a dead person on the way to their proper place in the Upper-world, presiding over annual renewal and agricultural regeneration festivals, etc.The most detailed study of the shamanistic ritual at funerals is by Waldemar Stöhr, Der Totenkult der Ngadju Dajak in Süd-Borneo. Mythen zum Totenkult und die Texte zum Tantolak Matei (Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff, 1966). Death rituals are most elaborate when a noble ( kamang) dies. Due to the institutionalization of Kaharingan beliefs in Indonesia, Kaharingan practices in Kalimantan have been recently codified and remolded into more organized religion, such as with codification of Panaturan as scripture of Kaharingan in 1971, creation of official Kaharingan body Hindu Kaharingan Religion Council ( Majelis Agama Hindu Kaharingan) in 1980, and standardization of its house of worship buildings called Balai Basarah. However, not all adherents agree with the Hindu classification; a rival body called the Indonesian Kaharingan Religion Council (Majelis Agama Kaharingan Indonesia) was formed to assert Kaharingan as an independent religion, distinct from Hinduism.

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Christianity Over the last two centuries, many Dayaks have converted to Christianity, making them the majority of Christians in Borneo, abandoning certain cultural rites and traditional practices in the process. Christianity was introduced by European missionaries in Borneo by Rheinische Missionsgesellschaft (later followed up by the Basel Mission).

Arif Rahman Hakim (2025). 9789799797803, Palangka Raya : Pemerintah Kota Palangka Raya. ISBN 9789799797803

Religious differences between Muslim and Christian natives of Borneo have led, at various times, to communal tensions.

(1986). 9789071310287, National Museum of Ethnology. ISBN 9789071310287

Relations, however between all religious groups are generally good.

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Islam Traditionally, in many parts of Borneo, embracing the Muslim faith is equated with Malayisation (Indonesian/Malay: masuk Melayu), i.e. assimilation into the broader Malay ethnicity. There are, however, several Dayak sub-ethnicities (mainly in Central Kalimantan) that predominantly adhere to Islam, but self-identify as Dayaks. These include e.g. the Bakumpai people, who converted to Islam in the 19th century, but still have strong linguistic and cultural ties to the Ngaju people. They have adopted a positive attitude towards the label "Dayak" and self-identify as Muslim Dayaks.

Ian Chalmers (2025). 9780958083737, Australian National University. ISBN 9780958083737

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Society and customs

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Economic activities Historically, most of the Dayak people are Slash-and-burn cultivators who supplement their incomes by seeking forest products, both for subsistence (ferns, medicinal plants, fibers, and timber) and for sale; by fishing and hunting and by periodic wage labor.

(2025). 9781891853050, Resources for the Future. ISBN 9781891853050

Presently, many modern-day Dayaks are also actively engaged in many contemporary economic activities, especially in the urban areas of Borneo.

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Agricultural Practices The Dayak people traditionally practice shifting cultivation, a form of agriculture adapted to the tropical forest environment of Borneo. This method involves clearing small plots of forest through controlled slash-and-burn techniques, allowing the ash to enrich the soil before planting. Crops typically include upland rice, tubers, vegetables and fruits. After several , the land is left fallow to regenerate while cultivation shifts to a new area, maintaining a balance with the natural ecosystem. Field preparation is generally done during the dry season, and planting begins with the onset of the rains. Tools used remain largely traditional, such as , digging sticks and hoes, although some communities have adopted modern equipment like .

Rice holds a central role not only as a Staple food but also as a culturally significant element in Dayak spiritual and ceremonial life. Seeds are often passed down through generations and specific rice varieties are reserved for rituals and community events. Farming is typically a communal activity, involving mutual cooperation during land preparation and harvest. Despite the increasing influence of modern agricultural practices and environmental regulations—particularly restrictions on burning—many Dayak communities continue to uphold traditional farming as a means of food security and cultural preservation.

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Toplessness In the Indonesia, toplessness was the norm among the Dayak people, Javanese people, and Balinese people of Indonesia before the introduction of Islam and contact with Western cultures. In Javanese and Balinese societies, women worked or rested comfortably topless. Among the Dayak, only big-breasted women or married women with sagging breasts covered their breasts because they interfered with their work. With the availability of shirts, toplessness was abandoned.

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Tattoo In many Dayak societies, a tattoo is regarded as a sacred creation that consolidates together the images of humans, flora, and fauna into a single body art. The tattoo is used as a spiritual expression of life, to unify the living, the spiritual powers, and the universe.

Traditionally, there are various reasons why a Dayak man or woman would choose body art. For some, it was used to mark a person's ethnic origin and rank in society. For others, the tattoo served as an act of devotion, as a demonstration of skills, to commemorate a special occasion in life, or as a symbol for the rite of passage.

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Elongated earlobes Amongst several Dayak groups in the past, long female are regarded as a symbol of beauty. The elongation process usually begins when the child is about 4 years old. During the initial stage, her ears will be pierced by an earring, so that the hisang (a special heavy silver or bronze earring) can be worn on her ears.

A new hisang will gradually be added with age. After a woman is married, her hisang will potentially be up to 20 pieces per-ear. As the hisang was sourced from precious and expansive metals like silver and bronze, it can signify her Social status, wealth, and social standing within the society. Thus, the longer her earlobes, the more important she is to the community. Presently, the practice of having stretched earlobes is almost limited to the elderly, as the practice of applying hisang amongst newborn babies has been rare since the 1960s.

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Longhouses In the traditional Dayak society, the long house or Lamin House, is regarded as the heart of the community, it functions as the village, as well as the societal architectural expression. This large building, sometimes exceeding 200 meters in length, may be divided into independent household apartments. The building is also equipped with communal areas for cooking, ceremonies, socializing, and blacksmithing.

The superstructure is not solely about architecture and design. It is a part of the Dayak traditional political entity and administrative system. Thus, culturally the people residing in the longhouse are governed by the customs and traditions of the longhouse.

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Beadworks Based on the archeological records in Borneo, it was discovered that the early inhabitants of the island had used organic materials to make simple . The beads were originally sourced from stones, bones, teeth, and shells. When the foreign traders arrived between the 8th-9th century, they further enhanced the ancient bead cultures of Borneo with the introduction of colourful glass beads. These early beads are usually small, in basic colours of red, yellow, white, turquoise, and black. These were followed by multicolored beads around the 1500s-1600s.

Traditional have occupied a pivotal status in various Dayak communities. In many Dayak cultures, beads are not solely regarded as ornamental objects, but they are a major cultural influence. Some of the beads only being used for ritualistic practices and are worn during such ceremonies. While heirloom beads (known as pesaka) are regarded as an important family heirloom and oftentimes being inherited from one generation to another.

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Metal-working Metalworking is elaborately developed in making (machetes – in Malay and Indonesian). The blade is made of softer iron, to prevent breakage, with a narrow strip of a harder iron wedged into a slot in the cutting edge for sharpness in a process called (iron-smithing).

In headhunting, it was necessary to be able to draw the quickly. For this purpose, the is fairly short, which also better serves the purpose of trail cutting in dense forests. It is holstered with the cutting edge facing upwards and at that side, there is an upward protrusion on the handle, so it can be drawn very quickly with the side of the hand without having to reach over and grasp the handle first. The hand can then grasp the handle while it is being drawn. The combination of these three factors (short, cutting edge up, and protrusion) makes for an extremely fast drawing-action.

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Headhunting and peacemaking In the past, the Dayaks were feared for their ancient tradition of headhunting practices (the ritual is also known as Ngayau by the Dayaks).

Among the most prominent legacies during the colonial rule in the Dutch Borneo (present-day Kalimantan) is the Tumbang Anoi Agreement held in 1894 in Damang Batu, Central Kalimantan (the seat of the Ngaju people). It is a formal meeting that gathered all the Dayak tribes in Kalimantan for a peace resolution. In the meeting that is reputed to take several months, the Dayak people throughout the Kalimantan agreed to end the headhunting tradition as it believed the tradition caused conflict and tension between various Dayak groups. The meeting ended with a peace resolution by the Dayak people.

Subsequently, the headhunting began to surface again in the mid-1940s, when the Allied powers encouraged the practice against the Japanese occupation of Borneo. It also slightly surged in the late 1960s when the Indonesian government encouraged Dayaks to purge the Chinese from interior Kalimantan who were suspected of supporting communism in mainland China, and in a period of high tension between Madurese people emigrants and Dayak during the Sambas riots and Sampit conflict conflicts around the turn of the century.

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Military The Dayak soldiers or trackers are regarded as equivalent in bravery to the Royal Scots or the Gurkha soldiers. The . (Accessed on 18/01/2020)

While in Indonesia, Tjilik Riwut was remembered as he led the first airborne operation by the Indonesian National Armed Forces on 17 October 1947. The team was known as MN 1001, with 17 October celebrated annually as the anniversary date for the Indonesian Air Force Paskhas, which traces its origins to that pioneer paratroop operation in Borneo.

== Gallery ==

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See also

• List of Dayak people
• Sapeh
• View of the tiger

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Further reading

• Eric Hansen (1988). 9780375724954, Vintage Books. ISBN 9780375724954
• Hans Schärer (2025). 9789401193467, Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9789401193467
• Jean Yves Domalain (1973). 9780688000288, William Morrow. . ISBN 9780688000288
• Judith M. Heimann (2025). 9780547416069, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 9780547416069
• Norma R. Youngberg (2025). 9781572581555, TEACH Services. ISBN 9781572581555
• Peter Goullart (1965). 9780719505423, John Murray. ISBN 9780719505423
• Raymond Corbey (2025). 9789054500162, C. Zwartenkot Art Books. ISBN 9789054500162
• Syamsuddin Haris (2025). 9789799801418, Yayasan Obor Indonesia. ISBN 9789799801418
• Victor T King (1978). 9780197134344, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780197134344

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External links

• Tribal peoples are fighting huge hydro-electric projects that are carving up the island's rainforest
• The J. Arthur and Edna Mouw papers at the Hoover Institution Archives focuses on the interaction of Christian missionaries with Dayak people in Borneo.
• The Airmen and the Headhunters Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead

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